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CHAPTER 19. OTHER PRONOUNS |
1. Indefinite pronouns
Indefinite pronouns may be used without antecedents. The indefinite
pronouns in the following sentences are underlined.
e.g.
One cannot believe everything
one hears.
I will try to think of
something.
Nobody will believe it!
Is there
anyone here by the name of Smith?
The following are examples of indefinite pronouns:
| one | | |
| anyone | anybody | anything |
| everyone | everybody | everything |
| [no one] | nobody | nothing |
| someone | somebody | something |
All of the pronouns listed above take verbs in the third person singular.
The phrase
no one is used like the other indefinite pronouns, but is
spelled as two separate words.
The pronoun
one can refer to persons or things.
e.g.
One of the boys will help you.
Please hand me
one of the boxes.
However, when used in a general sense, the pronoun
one is usually
understood as referring to persons.
e.g.
One should always look both ways before crossing the street.
In addition, the other indefinite pronouns ending in
one, and the
indefinite pronouns ending in
body, generally refer to persons. The
indefinite pronouns ending in
thing generally refer to things.
Unlike most of the personal pronouns, the indefinite pronouns have the
same form in the objective case as in the subjective case. As shown in
the following table, the indefinite pronouns which refer to persons form
possessive adjectives by adding
's.
| Indefinite Pronoun | Possessive Adjective |
| one | one's |
| anyone | anyone's |
| everyone | everyone's |
| no one | no one's |
| someone | someone's |
| anybody | anybody's |
| everybody | everybody's |
| nobody | nobody's |
| somebody | somebody's |
The indefinite pronouns which refer to things usually do not form
possessive adjectives.
a. The use of One in general statements
The indefinite pronoun
one is used in formal English to make general
statements.
e.g. By working systematically,
one may achieve the results
one desires.
In legal matters,
one must always make sure of
one's facts.
When used in this way,
one refers to persons in general, and has the
reflexive form
oneself.
e.g.
One should prepare
oneself to deal with any emergency.
In informal English, the personal pronoun
you is usually used in
making general statements. Thus, in informal English, the ideas in the
above sentences might be expressed:
e.g. By working systematically,
you may achieve the results
you desire.
In legal matters,
you must always make sure of
your facts.
You should prepare
yourself to deal with any emergency.
Occasionally, the pronoun
we is used in general statements. This use
of the pronoun
we is most likely to occur in formal speeches.
e.g. By working systematically,
we may achieve the results
we desire.
In legal matters,
we must always make sure of
our facts.
We should prepare
ourselves to deal with any emergency.
It is considered grammatically incorrect to use more than one type of
pronoun in a general statement such as those given above. For instance,
if a general statement is begun using the pronoun
one, the pronoun
one must be used throughout the statement. As shown above, the possessive
adjectives and reflexive pronouns in a general statement must agree with
their antecedents.
The following table summarizes the forms of the personal pronouns and
the indefinite pronoun
one.
Summary of the Forms of the Personal Pronouns and One
| Subjective Case | Objective Case | Possessive Adjective | Possessive Pronoun | Reflexive Pronoun |
| I | me | my | mine | myself |
| you | you | your | yours | yourself |
| he | him | his | his | himself |
| she | her | her | hers | herself |
| it | it | its | [its] | itself |
| we | us | our | ours | ourselves |
| you | you | your | yours | yourselves |
| they | them | their | theirs | themselves |
| | | | | |
| one | one | one's | | oneself |
See
Exercise 1.
In formal English, it is considered grammatically correct to use the
adjective
his to agree with indefinite pronouns such as
anyone and
everyone.
e.g.
Everyone took
his seat.
However, it is considered less discriminatory to use a phrase such as
his or her to agree with such pronouns.
e.g.
Everyone took
his or her seat.
In informal English, the problem of gender is often avoided by the use
of the plural adjective
their.
e.g.
Everyone took
their seat.
However, this use of
their is considered to be grammatically incorrect
in formal English.
2. Reciprocal pronouns
Reciprocal pronouns refer to persons or things which are acting on each
other. In English, the following two phrases are used as reciprocal
pronouns:
each other
one another
Both phrases may be used to refer to either persons or things.
e.g. You and I saw
each other last week.
The houses faced
each other.
The two friends helped
one another with their work.
The wires were touching
one another.
3. Demonstrative pronouns
The words
this,
that,
these and
those are used to indicate
specific persons or things. In the following examples, the words
this,
that,
these and
those are used independently, and can
be referred to as
demonstrative pronouns.
e.g.
This is an apple pie.
That is a good idea.
These are my friends.
Those are maple trees.
The words
this,
that,
these and
those can also be used
immediately preceding a noun, in which case they can be referred to
as
demonstrative adjectives.
e.g.
This pie is made with apples.
That idea seems practical.
These people are my friends.
Those trees are maples.
In the preceding examples,
this,
that,
these and
those act as
adjectives, modifying the nouns
pie,
idea,
people and
trees,
respectively.
This and
these are used to indicate persons or things that are
close to the speaker or writer.
This takes a singular verb, and is
used when referring to a single person or thing.
e.g.
This is my brother.
This book belongs to him.
These takes a plural verb, and is used when referring to more than one
person or thing.
e.g.
These are my brothers.
These books belong to him.
See
Exercise 2.
That and
those are used to indicate persons or things that are at
a distance from the speaker or writer.
That takes a singular verb,
and is used when referring to a single person or thing.
e.g.
That is a computer.
That woman is a professor.
Those takes a plural verb, and is used when referring to more than one
person or thing.
e.g.
Those are computers.
Those women are professors.
See
Exercise 3.
The use of
this,
these,
that and
those is summarized in the
following table.
| | Location Indicated | Singular or Plural |
| This | Close to speaker or writer | Singular |
| These | Close to speaker or writer | Plural |
| | | |
| That | Distant from speaker or writer | Singular |
| Those | Distant from speaker or writer | Plural |
See
Exercises 4 and
5.
4. Interrogative pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in asking questions. The pronouns
who,
what and
which are used as interrogative pronouns.
e.g.
Who telephoned?
What did you say?
Which is your brother?
a. Direct questions
Interrogative pronouns can be placed at the beginning of a sentence in
order to ask a question. Such questions can be referred to as
direct questions.
In a direct question, when the interrogative pronoun is the
subject of a
verb, the verb follows the subject. In the following examples, the verbs
are underlined, and the subjects of the verbs are printed in bold type.
e.g.
What has happened?
Who has been invited?
In these examples,
what is the subject of the verb
has happened,
and
who is the subject of the verb
has been invited. The presence
of the interrogative pronoun transforms the statement into a question,
and a question mark must be used.
When the interrogative pronoun is the
object of the verb or the object of
a preposition, inverted word order must be used, with the first auxiliary
preceding the subject of the verb. In the case of verbs in the Simple
Present or Simple Past, the auxiliary
do or
did must be used.
e.g. What
do you mean?
Which
did she choose?
What
is he doing?
To what
can one attribute their success?
In the preceding examples, the subjects
you,
she,
he and
one are
preceded by the auxiliaries
do,
did,
is and
can. In the first
three examples,
what and
which are the objects of the verbs. In the
fourth example,
what is the object of the preposition
to.
See
Exercise 6.
b. The pronoun Who
The pronoun
who usually refers only to persons. Unlike the other
interrogative pronouns,
who changes its form depending on the case,
as shown in the following table.
| Subjective Case | Objective Case | Possessive Case |
| who | whom | whose |
i. Who
When
who is the subject of a verb, the subjective case must
be used.
e.g.
Who opened the door?
Who will help me?
It should be noted that when
who is used with the verb
to be, or
with verbs in the Passive Voice, the subjective case must usually be
used, since such verbs cannot take an object.
e.g.
Who is it?
Who was the fastest runner?
Who will be there?
Who has been elected?
The first three examples above illustrate the use of
who with the verb
to be. The fourth example illustrates the use of
who with a verb in
the Passive Voice.
ii. Whom
In formal English, when the pronoun
who is the object of
a verb or the object of a preposition, the objective form
whom must
be used.
e.g.
Whom did you see downtown?
To
whom did you send the invitations?
In the first example,
whom is the object of the verb
see. In the
second example,
whom is the object of the preposition
to.
In informal English, the form
who is often used for the objective as
well as for the subjective case. For instance, in informal English, the
preceding examples might be expressed
Who did you see downtown? and
Who did you send the invitations to? However, this use of
who is
considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal English.
See
Exercise 7.
iii. Whose
The form
whose can be used either as a possessive
adjective followed by a noun, or as a possessive pronoun.
e.g.
Whose books are these?
Whose are these?
In the first example,
whose is used as a possessive adjective,
followed by the noun
books. In the second example,
whose is
used as a possessive pronoun.
The possessive form
whose expresses the idea of
belonging to. For
instance, the idea expressed in the sentence:
Whose books are these?
could also be expressed by the sentence:
To whom do these books belong?
See
Exercise 8.
c. What and Which
What and
which can be used either as interrogative pronouns, or as
interrogative adjectives followed by nouns.
e.g.
What is that?
Which is his sister?
What time is it?
Which woman is his sister?
In the first two examples,
what and
which are used as interrogative
pronouns. In the last two examples,
what and
which are used as
interrogative adjectives preceding the nouns
time and
woman.
When used as adjectives or as interrogative pronouns,
what and
which
can refer to either persons or things. In the following examples,
what
and
which are used as interrogative adjectives referring to
persons and things.
e.g.
What girl would not like to own a horse?
What color are the apples?
Which boy is the best horseback rider?
Which road leads to Chicago?
However, it should be noted that when used as a relative pronoun,
which
can refer only to things. Relative pronouns will be discussed later in
this chapter.
Which as an adjective or interrogative pronoun usually implies a choice
of one or more things from a limited number of alternatives.
e.g.
Which apple would you like?
Which children were ready on time?
The first example implies a choice of one apple from two or more apples.
The second example implies that an answer is expected which will indicate
certain children from a limited group of children.
In contrast,
what as an adjective or interrogative pronoun is usually
used in order to ask for general information.
e.g.
What time is it?
What does he want?
What can also be used in exclamations. For instance, the exclamation
What! can be used to express surprise or disbelief. The following are
other examples of the use of
what in exclamations.
e.g. What nonsense!
What a shame!
What a beautiful day!
In written English, an exclamation must be followed by an exclamation
mark:
! It should be noted that exclamations often do not contain verbs.
As illustrated above, when an exclamatory
what precedes a singular,
countable noun, the word
what must be followed by
a or
an.
e.g. What
a coincidence!
What
an elegant dress!
See
Exercise 9.
d. Indirect questions
As well as being used at the beginning of direct questions, interrogative
pronouns and adjectives can also be used at the beginning of
indirect questions.
Whereas a direct question forms a complete sentence in itself, an indirect
question is part of a longer sentence. The following examples show
the difference between a direct question and an indirect question.
e.g.
Who is there?
He wants to know
who is there.
Will you tell me
who is there?
In the first example,
Who is there? is a direct question. In the
second example,
who is there is an indirect question which is part
of a longer statement. In the third example,
who is there is an
indirect question which is part of a longer question.
i. Interrogative word as the subject
When the interrogative word is the
subject of a verb, or modifies the subject of a verb, the word order of
an indirect question is usually the same as that of a direct question.
In the following examples, the verbs of the direct and indirect questions
are underlined, and their subjects are printed in bold type.
e.g.
Direct Question:
What has happened?
Indirect Question: We shall ask
what has happened.
Direct Question: Which
child won the race?
Indirect Question: They will ask which
child won the race.
In the first pair of examples, the interrogative pronoun
what is the
subject of the verb
has happened. In the second pair of examples, the
interrogative adjective
which modifies
child, the subject of the
verb
won. In both pairs of examples, the word order of the indirect
questions is the same as that of the direct questions.
ii. Interrogative word as the object of a verb or preposition
When the
interrogative word is the object of a verb or preposition, or modifies the
object of a verb or preposition, the word order of an indirect question
differs from that of a direct question. In a direct question, the first
auxiliary precedes the subject, and the auxiliary
to do must be used
for verbs in the Simple Present and Simple Past. In an indirect question,
the subject precedes the verb, and the auxiliary
to do is not used.
Thus, in an indirect question, the word order used is the same as that used
for an affirmative statement.
This difference in word order is illustrated in the following examples.
e.g.
Direct Question: What
is he doing?
Indirect Question: I will ask what
he is doing.
Direct Question: What story
did they tell you?
Indirect Question: I wonder what story
they told you.
Direct Question: Which
does she prefer?
Indirect Question: We asked which
she prefers.
Direct Question: Whom
did he meet?
Indirect Question: Tell me whom
he met.
Direct Question: To whom
has she sent the invitations?
Indirect Question: They will ask to whom
she has sent the invitations.
Direct Question: For which friend
did they make the arrangements?
Indirect Question: Do you know for which friend
they made the arrangements?
As illustrated in the preceding examples, when the interrogative word is
the object of a verb or preposition, or modifies the object of a verb or
preposition, the first auxiliary precedes the subject in a direct
question, but the subject precedes the verb in an indirect question.
See
Exercise 10.
iii. The verb To Be with a noun or pronoun complement
A noun, noun phrase
or pronoun which follows the verb
to be is said to be the
complement
of the verb. When
what or
who is followed by both the verb
to be
and a noun or pronoun complement of the verb, the word order of an indirect
question usually differs from that of a direct question. As illustrated
in the following examples, in a direct question, the verb
to be is
followed by its complement; whereas in an indirect question, the verb
to be is usually preceded by its complement.
In each of the following examples, the verb
to be is underlined, and its
noun or pronoun complement is printed in bold type.
e.g.
Direct Question: What
is that?
Indirect question: Can you tell me what
that is?
Direct Question: What
was that noise?
Indirect Question: I wonder what
that noise was.
Direct Question: What time
is it?
Indirect Question: Ask him what time
it is.
Direct Question: Who
is she?
Indirect Question: Do you know who
she is?
Direct question: Who
was that man?
Indirect Question: I will ask who
that man was.
Direct Question: Whose shoes
are these?
Indirect Question: I wonder whose shoes
these are.
Similarly, when
which is followed by the verb
to be, followed by a
pronoun, the pronoun complement generally
precedes the verb in an indirect
question.
e.g.
Direct question: Which
was it?
Indirect Question: I want to know which
it was.
Direct Question: Which organization
is that?
Indirect Question: Please ask which organization
that is.
However, when
which is followed by the verb
to be followed by a
noun or noun phrase, the noun complement often
follows the verb in an
indirect question.
e.g.
Direct Question: Which
is the right road?
Indirect Question: Please tell me which
is the right road.
Direct Question: Which insects
are predators?
Indirect Question: He wants to know which insects
are predators.
It should be noted that in sentences with the verb
to be, the word
order of indirect questions differs from that of direct questions only
when the verb is accompanied by a
noun or
pronoun complement.
If the verb
to be is accompanied by an
adjective, the word order of
direct and indirect questions is the same. In each of the following
examples, the verb
to be is underlined, and the accompanying adjective
is printed in bold type.
e.g.
Direct Question: Who
is here?
Indirect Question: I will ask who
is here.
Direct Question: Who
was successful?
Indirect Question: Tell me who
was successful.
Direct Question: Which answer
is correct?
Indirect Question: Please tell us which answer
is correct.
See
Exercise 11.
The following table summarizes the variations in word order which occur in
direct and indirect questions. The examples of direct questions should be
compared with the corresponding examples of indirect questions.
Word order of Direct and Indirect Questions beginning with What, Which and Who
Direct Questions
| Type of Question | Word Order |
| The interrogative word is the | Subject precedes verb. Examples: |
| subject of the verb, or modifies | Who told her? |
| the subject of the verb | Which boy did it? |
| | |
| The interrogative word is | Subject follows the first auxiliary: |
| the object of a verb or | What has he done? |
| preposition, or modifies the | To whom shall we send it? |
| object of a verb or preposition | Which questions did she answer? |
| | For which child did you buy it? |
| | |
| The verb to be is accompanied | The verb to be precedes its complement: |
| by a noun or pronoun complement | Who are their friends? |
| | What was that?
|
| | What time is it? |
| | Which book was it? |
| | Which is the right answer? |
Indirect Questions
| Type of Question | Word Order |
| In all cases | Subject precedes verb. Examples: |
| | I wonder who told her. |
| | You asked which boy did it. |
| | She wants to know what he has done. |
| | He wonders to whom we shall send it. |
| | I wonder which questions she answered. |
| | Please tell me for which child you bought it. |
| | |
| The verb to be is accompanied | The verb to be usually follows |
| by a noun or pronoun complement | its complement. Examples: |
| | He will ask who their friends are. |
| | I wonder what that was. |
| | Do you know what time it is? |
| | Please tell me which book it was. |
| | |
| | However, in the case of which, |
| | the verb to be often precedes a |
| | noun complement. For example: |
| | I wonder which is the right answer. |
See
Exercise 12.
5. Relative pronouns
A pronoun which is used to begin a subordinate clause can be referred
to as a
relative pronoun, since it indicates the relationship of the
subordinate clause to the rest of the sentence.
For instance, the underlined words in the following sentences are
relative pronouns.
e.g. The woman
who is standing near the window is a doctor.
The door,
which was bright red, was very conspicuous.
Have you found the book
that was missing?
A subordinate clause which is introduced by a relative pronoun is often
referred to as a
relative clause.
a. Defining and non-defining relative clauses
Relative clauses can be divided into two types: those which merely give a
description of the object to which they refer, and those which define or
identify the object to which they refer.
i. Non-defining relative clauses
When a relative clause merely
describes an object without having the function of defining or
identifying to which object the speaker or writer is referring, the
clause must be placed between commas. Such a clause can be called a
non-defining or
non-limiting relative clause.
For instance, in the example:
The door, which was bright red, was very conspicuous.
the commas indicate that the clause
which was bright red is a
non-defining relative clause. In other words, this sentence implies
that it has already been made clear to which door the speaker or writer
is referring, and the clause
which was bright red merely provides
additional, descriptive information about the door.
Whereas in written English the presence of a non-defining relative
clause is indicated by the use of commas, in spoken English the
presence of such a clause is indicated by slightly emphasizing the word
immediately preceding the clause, and the last word of the clause. In
the following example, the emphasized words are underlined.
e.g. The
door, which was bright
red, was very conspicuous.
It should be noted that when material written in English is read aloud,
the presence of a comma is usually indicated by a slight pause.
ii. Defining relative clauses
When a relative clause has the function
of defining or identifying the object being referred to, the clause is
not placed between commas. Such a clause can be called a
defining or
limiting relative clause.
For instance, in the example:
The woman who is standing near the window is a doctor.
the absence of commas indicates that the clause
who is standing near the
window is a defining relative clause. In other words, the clause has the
function of identifying to which woman the speaker or writer is referring.
See
Exercise 13.
b. That
When used as a relative pronoun,
that can refer to either persons
or things. The relative pronoun
that is generally used only in
defining relative clauses. In the following examples, the relative
clauses are underlined.
e.g. The people
that were here yesterday will return in a month.
The newspaper
that was on the steps belongs to our neighbor.
In these examples,
that has the antecedents
people and
newspaper,
and introduces the defining relative clauses
that were here yesterday
and
that was on the steps.
In the preceding examples,
that acts as the subject of the verbs
were and
was. When it acts as the object of a verb or preposition,
the relative pronoun
that can usually be omitted.
e.g. The books
that we bought are heavy.
The town
that this road leads to is five miles away.
In the first sentence,
that acts as the object of the verb
bought.
In the second sentence,
that acts as the object of the preposition
to. The following examples show how the above sentences can be
rewritten without the use of
that.
The books
we bought are heavy.
The town
this road leads to is five miles away.
c. Which
As was pointed out in an earlier section, when used as an adjective or
interrogative pronoun,
which can refer to either persons or things.
However, it is important to note that when used as a relative pronoun,
which can refer only to things.
The relative pronoun
which can be used in either defining or
non-defining relative clauses.
e.g. The suitcase
which we purchased last week is very strong.
The sack,
which was full of rocks, was too heavy to lift.
In the first example,
which has the antecedent
suitcase, and introduces
the defining relative clause
which we purchased last week. In the second
example,
which has the antecedent
sack, and introduces the non-defining
relative clause
which was full of rocks.
d. Who, Whom and Whose
The use of
who,
whom and
whose as relative pronouns is similar to
their use as interrogative pronouns.
Who is used as the subject of a
verb,
whom is used as the object of a verb or the object of a preposition,
and
whose is used as an adjective indicating possession. The relative
pronouns
who,
whom and
whose can generally refer only to persons, and can be
used either in defining or non-defining relative clauses.
In the following examples,
who introduces the defining relative clause
who runs the fastest and the non-defining relative clause
who is studying German.
e.g. The child
who runs the fastest will receive a prize.
My sister,
who is studying German, wants to travel to Switzerland.
In these examples,
who has the antecedents
child and
sister, and
acts as the subject of the verbs
runs and
is studying.
In the following examples,
whom introduces the defining relative
clause
whom we visited and the non-defining relative clause
whom we
will meet tomorrow.
e.g. The boy
whom we visited is her nephew.
Mr. Henry,
whom we will meet tomorrow, will be our guide.
In these examples,
whom has the antecedents
boy and
Mr. Henry, and
acts as the object of the verbs
visited and
will meet.
In the following examples,
to whom introduces the defining relative
clause
to whom you sold your skis and the non-defining relative clause
to whom we send a birthday card every year.
e.g. The girl
to whom you sold your skis lives in the next block.
His uncle,
to whom we send a birthday card every year, is ninety-one
years old.
In these examples,
whom has the antecedents
girl and
uncle, and is
the object of the preposition
to.
In the following examples,
whose introduces the defining relative
clause
whose house was sold and the non-defining relative clause
whose family lives in Europe.
e.g. The woman
whose house was sold will retire to the country.
My cousin,
whose family lives in Europe, will visit us for a few
weeks.
In these examples,
whose has the antecedents
woman and
cousin, and
modifies the nouns
house and
family. In the case of
whose, it
should be noted that it is the antecedent which must be a person; the
noun being modified may be a person or a thing.
See
Exercises 14 and
15.
In informal English,
whose at the beginning of a clause is occasionally
used to refer not only to persons, but also to things, in order to make a
simpler sentence. For example, the following sentence is considered
grammatically correct in formal English.
e.g. The tree,
the branches of which overhung the street, was covered
with blossoms.
In informal English, the phrase
the branches of which might be
replaced by
whose branches, as illustrated in the following example.
e.g. The tree,
whose branches overhung the street, was covered with
blossoms.
However, this use of
whose is considered to be grammatically incorrect
in formal English.
e. Comparison of the use of That, Which and Who
The use of the relative pronouns
that,
which and
who is summarized
in the following table.
| Relative Pronoun | Type of Clause | Type of Antecedent |
| that | defining clause only | persons or things |
| which | defining or non-defining | things only |
| who/whom/whose | defining or non-defining | persons only |
From the preceding table it can be inferred that in the case of defining
relative clauses,
that may be used to replace
who,
whom or
which.
For instance, the following sentences:
The boy
whom we saw is her brother.
The hat
which you are wearing is rather large.
could be rewritten:
The boy
that we saw is her brother.
The hat
that you are wearing is rather large.
Like the relative pronoun
that,
whom and
which can generally be
omitted when they act as the object of the verb in a relative clause.
Thus, the preceding sentences could also be rewritten:
The boy we saw is her brother.
The hat you are wearing is rather large.
It should be noted that when
whom or
which is the object of a
preposition, the preposition immediately precedes the relative pronoun.
e.g. The boy
to whom we sent the message was excited.
The room
to which you will be conducted has beautiful furniture.
In these examples,
whom and
which are immediately preceded by the
preposition
to.
However, when the relative pronoun
that is the object of a preposition,
the preposition is normally placed at the end of the relative clause. For
instance, if
that is used, the second example must be rewritten as follows:
The room
that you will be conducted
to has beautiful furniture.
f. Other relative pronouns
Relative pronouns such as
what,
whatever and
whoever are normally
used without antecedents. When used as a relative pronoun,
what has
the meaning
the thing or things that.
e.g.
What you say is true.
What he did was wrong.
In these examples, the relative pronoun
what introduces the clauses
what you say and
what he did. Such clauses are often referred to
as
noun clauses, since they can serve some of the functions of a noun.
For instance, in the preceding sentences, the clause
what you say acts
as the subject of the verb
is, and the clause
what he did acts as
the subject of the verb
was.
Whatever has the meaning
no matter what, or
anything which.
Whoever has the meaning
no matter who, or
anyone who.
e.g. You can tell me
whatever you like.
Let in
whoever comes to the door.
In these examples, the noun clauses
whatever you like and
whoever
comes to the door act as the objects of the verbs in the main clauses.
