A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the ideas
expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in the rest of a sentence.
The conjunctions in the following examples are printed in bold type.
e.g. We could go to the library,
or we could go to the park.
He
neither finished his homework
nor studied for the test.
I went out
because the sun was shining.
1. Coordinate conjunctions
Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical
constructions; for instance, two words, two phrases or two clauses.
e.g. My
friend and I will attend the meeting.
Austria is famous for
the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people.
The sun rose and the birds began to sing.
In these examples, the coordinate conjunction
and is used to join the
two words
friend and
I, the two phrases
the beauty of its landscape
and
the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses
the sun rose
and
the birds began to sing.
The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are
and,
but and
or.
In addition, the words
nor and
yet may be used as coordinate
conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate conjunction is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word order in the clause beginning with
nor.
Coordinate Conjunctions
| and: in addition | She tried and succeeded. |
| but: however | They tried but did not succeed. |
| or: alternatively | Did you go out or stay at home? |
| nor: and neither | I did not see it, nor did they. |
| yet: however | The sun is warm, yet the air is cool. |
As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which
have the same subject, the subject need not be repeated. For instance,
in the example
she tried and succeeded, the pronoun
she acts as the
subject for both the verb
tried and the verb
succeeded. It should
also be noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which
do not have the same subject, the two coordinate clauses may be separated
by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the meaning clear.
See
Exercise 1.
2. Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the
relationship between the ideas expressed in different parts of a
sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression
either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the
two clauses represent two alternative choices of action.
e.g.
Either you should study harder,
or you should take a different course.
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are
both ... and,
either ... or and
neither ... nor. In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use.
Note that in the construction
if ... then, the word
then can usually be omitted.
Correlative Conjunctions
| both ... and | He is both intelligent and good-natured. |
| either ... or | I will either go for a walk or read a book. |
| neither ... nor | He is neither rich nor famous. |
| hardly ... when | He had hardly begun to work, when he was interrupted. |
| if ... then | If that is true, then what happened is not surprising. |
| no sooner ... than | No sooner had I reached the corner, than the bus came. |
| not only ... but also | She is not only clever, but also hard-working. |
| rather ... than | I would rather go swimming than go to the library. |
| scarcely ... when | Scarcely had we left home, when it started to rain. |
| what with ... and | What with all her aunts, uncles and cousins, she has many relatives. |
| whether ... or | Have you decided whether you will come or not? |
See
Exercise 2.
3. Subordinate conjunctions
As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may begin
with relative pronouns such as
that,
what,
whatever,
which,
who and
whom, as well as with words such as
how,
when,
where,
wherever and
why.
In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are
underlined.
e.g. The house,
which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles.
I wonder
how he did that.
In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are
commonly referred to as
subordinate conjunctions. In the following
examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g.
Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat.
Let us wait
until the rain stops.
The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use.
Subordinate Conjunctions
As
1. because:
As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when: We watched
as the plane took off.
After
1. later in time:
After the train left, we went home.
Although or
though
1. in spite of the fact that:
Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.
Before
1. earlier than: I arrived
before the stores were open.
Because
1. for the reason that: We had to wait,
because we arrived early.
For
1. for, because: He is happy,
for he enjoys his work.
If
1. on condition that:
If she is here, we will see her.
Lest
1. for fear that: I watched closely,
lest he
make a mistake.
Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause
with
lest.
Providing or
provided
1. on condition that: All will be well,
providing you are careful.
Since
1. from a past time: I have been here
since the sun rose.
2. as, because:
Since you are here, you can help me.
So or
so that
1. consequently: It was raining,
so we did not go out.
2. in order that: I am saving money
so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning
in order that,
so is usually followed by
that in formal English.
e.g. I am saving money
so that I can buy a bicycle.
Supposing
1. if:
Supposing that happens, what will you do?
Than
1. used in comparisons: He is taller
than you are.
Unless
1. except when, if not:
Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.
Until or
till
1. up to the time when: I will wait
until I hear from you.
Whereas
1. because:
Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
2. on the other hand: He is short,
whereas you are tall.
Whether
1. if: I do not know
whether she was invited.
While
1. at the time when:
While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand: He is rich,
while his friend is poor.
3. although:
While I am not an expert, I will do my best.
In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of
subordinate clauses.
As if
1. in a similar way: She talks
as if she knows everything.
As long as
1. if:
As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while: He has lived there
as long as I have known him.
As soon as
1. immediately when: Write to me
as soon as you can.
As though
1. in a similar way: It looks
as though there will be a storm.
Even if
1. in spite of a possibility: I am going out
even if it rains.
In case
1. because of a possibility: Take a sweater
in case it gets cold.
Or else
1. otherwise: Please be careful,
or else you may have an accident.
So as to
1. in order to: I hurried
so as to be on time.
See
Exercise 3.
Certain words, such as
after,
before,
since and
until
may function either as prepositions or subordinate conjunctions.
However it should be noted that in some cases different words must be used as
prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express
similar meanings. This is illustrated in the table below.
Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions
| Meaning | Preposition | Conjunction |
| for this reason | because of | because |
| in spite of this | despite | although |
| at the time when | during | while |
| in a similar way | like | as if |
In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the verbs of the subordinate clauses are underlined.
Preposition: They were upset
because of the
delay.
Conjunction: They were upset
because they
were delayed.
Preposition:
Despite the
rain, we enjoyed ourselves.
Conjunction:
Although it
rained, we enjoyed ourselves.
Preposition: We stayed indoors
during the
storm.
Conjunction: We stayed indoors
while the storm
raged.
Preposition: It looks
like rain.
Conjunction: It looks
as if it
will rain.
In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions
because of,
despite,
during and
like have the noun objects
delay,
rain and
storm; whereas the subordinate conjunctions
because,
although,
while and
as if introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs
were delayed,
rained,
raged and
will rain.
It should be noted that
like is sometimes used as a subordinate
conjunction in informal English.
e.g. It looks
like it will rain.
However, this use of
like is considered incorrect in formal English.
See
Exercise 4.
4. Connecting adverbs
Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship between the
ideas expressed in a clause and the ideas expressed in a preceding clause,
sentence or paragraph. In the following examples, the connecting adverbs
are printed in bold type.
e.g. I wanted to study;
however, I was too tired.
We knew what to expect.
Therefore, we were not surprised at what
happened.
In the first example, the connecting adverb
however shows that there
is a conflict between the idea expressed in the clause
I was too tired
and the idea expressed in the preceding clause
I wanted to study. In
the second example, the connecting adverb
therefore shows that there
is a cause and effect relationship between the idea expressed in the
sentence
we knew what to expect, and the clause
we were not surprised
at what happened.
Connecting adverbs are similar to conjunctions in that both may be
used to introduce clauses. However, the use of connecting adverbs
differs from that of conjunctions in the ways indicated below.
a. Stress and punctuation
In spoken English, a connecting adverb is usually given more stress than
a conjunction. Correspondingly, in formal written English a connecting
adverb is usually separated from the rest of a clause by commas, whereas
a conjunction is usually not separated from the rest of a clause by commas.
In addition, in formal written English a clause containing a connecting
adverb is often separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon; whereas
a clause beginning with a conjunction is usually not separated from a
preceding clause by a semicolon.
e.g. I wanted to study;
however, I was too tired.
I wanted to study,
but I was too tired.
In the first example, the connecting adverb
however is preceded by a
semicolon, and is separated from
I was too tired by a comma. In the
second example, the conjunction
but is preceded by a comma rather than
by a semicolon, and is not separated from
I was too tired by a comma.
It should be noted that when no conjunction is present, a semicolon may
be used to connect two main clauses. For example:
The clouds dispersed; the moon rose.
In this example, the two main clauses
the clouds dispersed and
the moon rose are connected by a semicolon rather than by a
conjunction.
b. Connecting adverbs used to connect sentences
Unlike conjunctions, connecting adverbs may be used in formal English to
show the relationship between ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong.
Thus, I felt very cold.
In this example, the connecting adverb
thus shows that there is a cause
and effect relationship between the ideas expressed by the two sentences
the wind was strong and
I felt very cold.
In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong.
And I felt very cold.
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be
grammatically incorrect in formal English.
c. Position in a clause
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning of a
clause. However, as was seen in the discussion on
adverbs, a connecting
adverb may be placed at the beginning, in the middle, or at the end of a
clause. This is illustrated below.
e.g. His visit was unexpected.
Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was,
nevertheless, pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him,
nevertheless.
d. Examples of connecting adverbs
The following are examples of words which may be used as connecting
adverbs. Each connecting adverb is followed by its meaning and an example of its use.
Connecting Adverbs
| accordingly: so | He was very persuasive; accordingly, I did what he asked. |
| also: in addition | She is my neighbor; she is also my best friend. |
| besides: in addition | I like the job. Besides, I need the money. |
| consequently: so | She had a fever; consequently, she stayed at home. |
| furthermore: in addition | You should stop smoking. Furthermore, you should do it at once! |
| hence: for that reason | He is a good friend. Hence, I was not embarrassed to ask him for help. |
| however: but | We wanted to arrive on time; however, we were delayed by traffic. |
| likewise: in addition | The region is beautiful. Likewise, the climate is excellent. |
| moreover: in addition | She is very intelligent; moreover, she is very ambitious. |
| nevertheless: but | They are proud. Nevertheless, I like them. |
| nonetheless: but | The ascent was dangerous. Nonetheless, he decided to attempt it. |
| otherwise: if not, or else | We should consult them; otherwise, they may be upset. |
| still: but | It is a long way to the beach. Still, it is a fine day to go swimming. |
| then: 1. next, afterwards | We went shopping, then we had lunch. |
| 2. so | If you are sure, then I must believe you. |
| therefore: for that reason | I was nervous; therefore, I could not do my best. |
| thus: so, in this way | He travelled as quickly as possible. Thus, he reached Boston the next day. |
As indicated in the following table, several connecting adverbs
have meanings similar to those of the conjunctions
and,
but or
so.
Connecting Adverbs with meanings similar to And, But and So
| Similar to And | Similar to But | Similar to So |
| also | however | accordingly |
| besides | nevertheless | consequently |
| furthermore | nonetheless | hence |
| likewise | still | therefore |
| moreover | | thus |
See
Exercises 5 and
6.
5. Parallel construction
The repetition of a particular grammatical construction is often
referred to as
parallel construction. This is illustrated in the following examples.
e.g. I am
neither angry nor excited.
The resort contains
tennis courts,
swimming pools and
a snack bar.
In the first example, the two phrases
neither angry and
nor excited exhibit
parallel construction. In the second example, the three phrases
tennis courts,
swimming pools and
a snack bar exhibit parallel construction.
In English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction whenever parallel ideas
are expressed.
Thus, whenever possible, parallel construction should be employed when
correlative conjunctions are used. In the following example, the
correlative conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g.
Incorrect: He has
both a good education,
and he has good work habits.
Corrected: He has
both a good education and good work habits.
The first sentence is incorrect, since
both and
and are followed by
different grammatical constructions.
Both is followed by the phrase
a good education; whereas
and is followed by the clause
he has good
work habits. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the
clause
he has good work habits into the phrase
good work habits.
The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction with
the correlative conjunctions
neither ... nor.
e.g.
Incorrect: She turned
neither right
nor to the left.
Corrected: She turned
neither right nor left.
or Corrected: She turned
neither to the right nor to the left.
The first sentence is incorrect, since
neither is followed by a single
word; whereas
nor is followed by a prepositional phrase. The second
sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase
to the left to the
word
left. Alternatively, as shown in the third sentence, two prepositional phrases can be used.
See
Exercise 7.
Parallel
construction should also be used when listing a series of ideas. For example:
Incorrect: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.
Corrected: The hotel is
charming,
well-situated and
inexpensive.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the series,
charming and
well-situated, are adjectives, whereas the last item,
is not expensive, contains a verb. The second sentence has been
corrected by changing
is not expensive to the adjective
inexpensive.
The following is another example of the use of parallel
construction when listing a series of ideas.
e.g.
Incorrect: I like to ski, skating and swimming.
Corrected: I like
skiing, skating and
swimming.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in the series,
to ski, is an infinitive, whereas the second and third items,
skating and
swimming, are gerunds. The second sentence has been
corrected by changing the infinitive
to ski to the gerund
skiing.
See
Exercise 8.
